Traditional Chinese Medicine Terminology Research Articles

Translation of Terminology of Traditional Chinese Medicine into Russian: Cultural Communication and Translation Features

The article discusses the peculiarities of the terminology of traditional Chinese medicine and the problems that arise during its translation into Russian. The author shows that the most common model for creating terms in this field is represented by two-word and four-word phrases. It is noted that their translation cannot be limited to traditional methods. It is asserted that the conceptual meaning of terms in traditional Chinese medicine has historical, philosophical, and humanistic foundations. It is emphasized that the translation of terms in traditional Chinese medicine should include issues of cultural communication. Examples of successful and unsuccessful translations of terms into Russian demonstrate that the rich cultural subtext contained in them determines the difficulty of their perception. The reasons for incorrect translations of terms in traditional Chinese medicine are indicated, among which their non-equivalence, historical-cultural context, differences in content when there are differences in expression, etc. It is concluded that an important issue in translating terms in traditional Chinese medicine is the need to formulate unified rules for translating texts in this field into a foreign language.

WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Chinese Medicine: Use in Context, Creatively

BACKGROUND Communicating with clarity is no easy task, but it matters.[1] It is particularly challenging to translate the terminologies of traditional medicine and use them precisely in integrative medicine communications—often the first step towards further interaction and integration. As a result, “lost in translation” and “confused in translation” are common,[2–4] and there has long been a yearning call for reliable standards to guide the translation of traditional medicine terminologies.[5,6] World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nation's health agency, is well-placed to answer this call, as part of its efforts in developing comprehensive standards pertinent to traditional and integrative medicines. Since 1991, WHO has published a series of technical guidelines on herbal medicines and acupuncture, cumulating into the publication of its general guidelines for methodologies on research and evaluation of traditional medicine in 2000.[7] Since then, WHO has accelerated its efforts in devising guidelines and publishing state-of-the-art reports, as exemplified by two editions of its traditional medicine strategy[8,9] guidelines on acupuncture safety, training and practice,[10,11] guidelines on good herbal manufacturing practices and quality control of herbal medicines,[12,13] and a global report on traditional medicine.[14] In 2007, the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific published the first edition of international standard terminologies on traditional medicine in the region, particularly focused on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM);[15] and in March 2022, WHO published its international standard terminologies solely dedicated to TCM.[16] This new WHO standard, along with the WHO standard nomenclature of acupuncture points and meridians[17,18] and the inclusion of traditional medicine conditions in the 11th Revision of the WHO International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11),[19] can be expected to play a major role in harmonising and modernising integrative Chinese medicine communications internationally. A MASTERPIECE OF UPDATING AND HARMONISATION In my opinion, the new standard can be regarded as an updated and re-focused edition of the widely cited 2007 standard,[15] after absorbing from and harmonising with a World Federation of Chinese Medicine Societies (WFCMS) international standard Chinese-English TCM nomenclature published in 2008,[20] TCM-related national standards from China, scholarly publications on TCM terminologies, as well as the ICD-11, which has been in global use since January 2022.[19] In 453 pages, the handbook covers TCM fundamental theories, diagnoses, therapies, interventions, disorders, patterns, prevention, health preservation and rehabilitation, including 28 main categorisation terms and 3387 specific terms, for most of which concise definitions are provided. The WHO must be heartily commended for accomplishing such a monumental project, by breaking barriers and assembling the latest research outcomes, and by harmonising terminologies with existing WHO standards, such as ICD-11, and national standards in China, the birthplace and the biggest TCM market of the world. By focusing on TCM only, this new standard has avoided some inevitable conflicts of the 2007 standard, which was supposed to cover all traditional medicines in the WHO Western Pacific Region, but in fact, mainly covers TCM.[15] With this refreshed focus, the standard focuses on translations between two languages, including corresponding English terms, Chinese terms (in Chinese characters) and Pinyin terms (in accented Chinese Pinyin), as well as the English definition of the term. The corresponding terms in English, Chinese and Pinyin share the same term catalogue number (WGM#1-3415), indicating that they are equivalent and can be optionally used in different contexts to mean the same thing, or used complementarily, if necessary. To encourage the use of standard terms, the inclusion of synonyms has been minimised in this new standard. Of course, by focusing on TCM only, the applicability of this standard will be more limited, compared with the 2007 standard. However, experiences and lessons learnt from developing this standard will hopefully facilitate the development of more standards on terminologies of other traditional medicines in the future. The English terms in the new standard can be categorised into four types: (1) those displayed as the same words used in biomedicine, with the same or very similar meanings, such as “chronic cough” (WGM2#1675), asthma (WGM2#1677) and urinary retention (WGM2#1699); (2) those in the form of unaccented Pinyin, such as Yin, Yang and Qi; (3) those displayed as mixtures of unaccented Pinyin and generic English words, such as “Yin and Yang reciprocally root” (WGM2#11), “Yin and Yang mutually transform” (WGM2#13) and “extreme Yang transforming into Yin” (WGM2#15); and (4) those containing terms used in biomedicine, but with different meanings, e.g. the words “kidney”, “heart” and “spleen” in “kidney water” (WGM2#1700), “Clear heat in the heart and kidney” (WGM2#2347)”, “tonify the spleen and kidney” (WGM2#2437)”. Among these terms, the first type is the least problematic in integrative medicine and can be directly used without additional definition, but these terms are very few. The second and third types of terms do not directly conflict with terms used in biomedicine, but they might mean little to readers without a TCM training background, thus, a clear definition might be needed to make sense and to achieve the goal of “communication with clarity”. The fourth type seems to be the most problematic. According to Dr. Qi Zhang, Head of the Unit of Traditional, Complementary and Integrative Medicine (TCIM), Department of Integrated Health Services, WHO, the development of this new terminology standard followed six key principles: (1) Providing comprehensive definition for all terms included; (2) use of English as the primary language; (3) building on the related work and following WHO relevant principles; (4) keeping the integrity of the theoretical framework of TCM; (5) keeping definitions concise and clear, and focusing on the underlying, core terms in TCM; and (6) full use of the resources of professional domestic and international organisations of TCM, and WHO Collaborating Centres and Expert Panel for TCIM.[16] These important principles have clearly contributed to the success of the project as a whole. In particular, the use of English as the primary language has made it more suitable for international use, such as in English magazines and journals on TCM and integrative Chinese medicine. However, the indigenous terminologies of TCM are in Chinese. If any English terms were ambiguously translated from their corresponding Chinese terms, this would significantly reduce clarity in communications, risking “lost” and “confused” in translation. Does this hazard remain in the new standard? “KIDNEY” AND “SHEN” The word “kidney” appeared 423 times in the standard terminologies, including in terms, synonyms or definitions of terms. “Kidney” is mainly a functional concept in TCM, while the word is an anatomic concept in biomedicine. “Kidney” in TCM and biomedicine has overlapping structural bases and functions, thus the word “kidney” in TCM and biomedicine differs. Meanwhile, the corresponding Chinese character of shen appeared 104 times, among which 98 were translated into “kidney”, with a few exceptions: To harmonise with the WHO standard nomenclature of acupuncture points and meridians,[17,18] “Shen Shu Xu Tan” and “Shen Shu Lou” are translated into “deficiency phlegm at Shenshu (BL 23)” (WGM2#1493) and “fistula at Shenshu (BL 23)” (WGM2#1494), respectively. Here, Shenshu is translated into the unaccented Pinyin name of the acupuncture point, further supplemented by its WHO standard code (BL 23). “Shen Yong” is translated into “renal abscess” (WGM2#1703), which is defined as “a condition (secondary to an abscess in Jingmen (GB 25) or other body parts) characterised by sudden chills, fever, and severe lower back pain. Weak, hesitant urine stream, painful urination and pain in the renal area and costovertebral angle to percussion may also be present. Often occurs when toxins from the abscess affect the kidney.” In this term, “renal” is the adjective form of “kidney”, and its meaning is similar to the use of “kidney” in the translation of shen lao into “kidney tuberculosis” (WGM2#1487), which is “characterised by frequent, painful urination, low back soreness, and bloody urine. Associated symptoms include tidal fever, night sweats and flushed cheeks. This condition often occurs when the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis affects the kidney through the bloodstream and consumes Qi and Yin”. In both cases, the terms “renal abscess” and “kidney tuberculosis” are similar to the symptoms and signs of renal abscess and kidney tuberculosis in biomedicine, without direct evidence of kidney involvement or bacterial infection. To minimise ambiguity, such subtle differences should be clearly noted. “Shen Yan Fan Hua” is translated into “penile cancer” (WGM2# 2195), which is “characterised by papulae or solid nodules on the skin or in the tissues of the penis, accompanied by foul smelling discharge from the penis. It is often caused by constitutional deficiency of the liver and kidney, exuberant ministerial fire due to worry or anger, blood dryness in the liver meridian and stagnant pathogenic fire”. Here, the Chinese Pinyin term Shen Yan Fan Hua is a condition of the penis, rather than the kidney in biomedicine. Although translated into “penile cancer”, by the given definition, this TCM clinical diagnosis does not necessarily imply the availability of pathological or cytological evidence of cancer. For clarity, wherever the term shen yan fan hua or “penile cancer” is used, special notes should be added to indicate the above aspects. “Shen Nang Feng” is translated into “scrotal eczema” (WGM2#1953), which is “characterised by severe itching (sometimes pain), erythema, scaling, skin lesions with sometimes oozing rash on the scrotum. Often results from downward flow of damp heat along the liver meridian or wind affecting the scrotal region”. Here, the Chinese Pinyin term Shen Nang Feng is a condition of the scrotum, rather than the kidney in biomedicine. Finally, “Shen Zhuo” is translated into “lower back pain due to cold dampness” (WGM2#1814), which is “characterised by lower back pain and heaviness with a cold sensation and difficulty turning over. Often occurs when cold dampness obstructs the meridians in the low back”. In this case, the Chinese Pinyin term Shen Zhuo has little relevance with the kidney in biomedicine. In addition to the above standard terms, “Shen Ji Qi” is one of the synonyms of “Ben Tun”, which is translated into “running piglet” (WGM2#2170). This term must be clearly defined. Otherwise, it could hardly be understood in the context of integrative medicine and biomedical science. The condition is “characterised by Qi rushing up from the lower abdomen to the chest and throat. Panic, abdominal pain or alternating chills and fever may also be present. Often results from ascending of Yin cold Qi from the kidney, fear/fright or ascending of liver Qi along the meridian pathway”. In this definition, “the kidney” is clearly a TCM concept distinct from its meaning in biomedicine. Thus, both standard terms and their definitions might need some clarification from experts who understand both TCM and Western medicine. USE IN CONTEXT From a scientific perspective, it would be ideal that each terminology is unique, standardised and clearly defined, leaving no room for ambiguity. However, the specificity of terminologies is often context-dependent. A good example highlighting the importance of historical contexts on terminologies is the conceptual shifts of TCM terminology, cumulating into subtle differences of a term in classical TCM, e.g. as defined in the Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic, and in modernised TCM, which has adapted to and partially converged with biomedicine.[21,22] Noting such differences and defining them accordingly will be necessary to avoid “lost or confused in translation”. Context-dependent narratives can be needed for both TCM-specific and generic terminologies. For the latter, a simple example is a context-dependent use and interpretation of “traditional medicine”, “Western medicine” and “conventional medicine”. Although both “Western medicine” and “conventional medicine” interchangeably refer to biomedicine, for obvious geo-cultural reasons, “conventional medicine” is preferentially used in the Western world, while “Western medicine” is more widely used in the Eastern world. Based on a WHO definition, traditional medicine refers to age-old medical traditions worldwide. It is the knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures used in the maintenance of health, as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of illnesses.[8,9] As such, in most scenarios, “traditional medicine” is used as opposed to “conventional medicine”. However, from a historic perspective, today's convention may become future's tradition, and “traditional medicine” in a prospective article can indeed be today's “conventional medicine”.[23] Therefore, geo-cultural and historic contexts do have important influences in determining the selection of terminologies, and context-dependent interpretation of terminologies may always have an important role to play in integrative medicine and related science communication. USE CREATIVELY Taking the correct geo-cultural and historic contexts into consideration, the WHO standard terminologies can indeed be used creatively, to differentiate any nuanced differences and avoid ambiguity. In this way, the chance of conflicts, confusion, disdain and angst can be minimised, scientific rigour maintained, and life-threatening consequences avoided in integrative medicine. Again, let us use the word kidney as an example. If it is used in the context of integrative medicine, where the TCM term kidney and its namesake in biomedicine are used in the same article or even side by side, e.g. in Integrative Medicine in Nephrology and Andrology, or in any other contexts where the readership is diverse, how can readers understand which “kidney” refers to a TCM concept and which is biomedical? If it is a TCM term, what is its relationship with its namesake in biomedicine? In these contexts, my suggestions are as follows: Formatting to differentiate All TCM terms containing conventional medicine terms with different meanings should be differentiated from their modern counterparts by using quotation marks (e.g. “kidney”) or italicised fonts (e.g. kidney) and their differences from their modern counterparts must be clearly explained in the main texts (e.g. Background, Introduction, Methodology), in footnotes and side panels, or in glossary lists, boxes or tables. Use Pinyin terms, if necessary In contexts where the TCM concept of “kidney” and the conventional medicine concept of the kidney must be used side by side, it may be preferable to use Pinyin terms, i.e., accented Pinyin names to avoid confusion caused by two different forms of the kidney, as we experimented before.[24] Define properly Regardless of the format of a TCM term, unless it means the same as in biomedicine, it is always highly desirable to define them clearly, so that non-TCM experts can understand them without incurring conflicts. The WHO handbook definitions of standard terms offer the basis for this, but additional efforts will be needed to avoid using TCM terms to define TCM terms so that non-TCM experts can understand. If possible, it will be important to use scientific evidence to illustrate the scientific basis of the relevant terms. CONCLUDING REMARK So far, only three comprehensive international guidelines pertinent to TCM terminologies are published—the 2007 edition of WHO international standard terminologies for traditional medicine in the WHO Western Pacific Regional Office,[15] the 2008 edition of WFCMS international standard Chinese-English TCM nomenclature,[20] and the 2022 edition of WHO international standard TCM terminologies.[16] Building on the former two, the latter has harmonised with ICD-11 and the latest national standards from China and absorbed the latest research outcomes, thus it represents the state of the art in TCM terminologies and English translation, and its dissemination and use should be prioritized. Despite this, the 2022 edition of WHO TCM terminologies do not entirely replace the other two—the 2007 edition of WHO standards include 3543 terms and the 2008 edition of WFCMS standards include 6526 terms, both greater than the 3415 terms included in the latest WHO standards. Hence, at least for those terms not covered by the latest WHO TCM terminologies, the other two standards still have important roles to play. In addition to these general standards, the International Standardization Organization (ISO) committee on TCM (ISO/TC 249) has collaborated with the WFCMS to develop specialist guidelines on Chinese materia medica (CMM), a bipartite TCM vocabulary (ISO 18662-1:2017 and ISO 18662-2:2020), TCM coding rules (ISO 18668-1:2016), and codes for decoction pieces (ISO 18668-2:2017), CMM (ISO 18668-3:2017) and granule forms of individual medicinal for pre scriptions (ISO 18668-4:2017). Under development include guidelines on TCM vocabulary on the efficacy of CMM (ISO/WD 18662-3) and for abdominal diagnostics (ISO/CD TS 23961-3). As an ongoing initiative, these ISO guidelines are neither comprehensive nor complete, thus they cannot serve as general guidelines for TCM-related translation and communication. Instead, these ISO standards aim to support the work of the ISO/TC 249, and have succeeded in supporting the publications of more than 80 international standards on quality, safety, and traditional processing of raw materials and manufactured TCM products, with 27 more standards being actively drafted.[25] The Good Practice in TCM (GP-TCM) project, an EU-China collaborative consortium supported by the European Union and its successor, the GP-TCM Research Association, etc., have also committed to promoting good practice in naming and quality control of botanical materials in studies on botanical products.[26–28] Since the publication of the GP-TCM guideline on reviewing and publishing studies on herbal medicine, esp. TCM and CMM, a decade has passed.[27] We recently evaluated the implementation of the guideline in a selected area of research in the past 5 years. Only a minority of publications have complied with the guideline.[29] The message is clear: it is important to develop standards and guidelines, but this is insufficient. Additional efforts are needed to facilitate implementation, feedback and measurement of adherence and impact. Recently, the WHO Western Pacific Region Office published a framework report to promote harnessing traditional and complementary medicine for achieving health and well-being of the region in the post-COVID era.[30] To enable TCM a bigger role in the WHO Traditional Medicine strategies,[9] we must make the best use of existing guidelines and standards and innovate further from there. In this process, the WHO, WFCMS, ISO, GP-TCM Research Association, China National Administration of TCM, as well as every one of us will have a role to play.

Sociocognitive terminology-based principles for translating the classics of traditional Chinese medicine

The classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) contain terminology that is challenging to translate from the Ancient Chinese language into modern English and other target languages. In this paper, we introduce the main principles of sociocognitive terminology theory and examine how the application of these principles in TCM translation projects can produce superior results. To begin our study, we evaluate the salient characteristics of important TCM terms from linguistic, cognitive, diachronic, and communicative perspectives. Next, we present a model for realizing the objectives of linguistic economy, systematic relevance, conceptual retrospection, and knowledge dissemination in sociocognitive translation studies. Finally, to illustrate the practicality of this four-dimensional model, we present a case study on sociocognitive translation of the TCM classic 黄帝内经 (Huangdi Neijing or The Inner Canon of Huangdi), which was compiled during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). In summary, we find that this model effectively addresses the complexities of TCM terminology and provides solutions to problems involving conceptual connotation, symbolic representation, and communicative context. Following this approach, translators will be better able to convey the profoundly humanistic nature of TCM concepts, significantly improve the quality of TCM translations, and promote TCM and Chinese culture internationally.

Use of Non-Verbal Representations to Define Concept of Pulse Conditions in Traditional Chinese Medicine Standards

The standardization of terms and definitions is fundamental to all activities in the domain of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). For decades, definitions of TCM terminology relied on conventional verbal representations to differentiate between related concepts. However, the ancient Chinese is obscure and comprises a massive volume of information, making it difficult to convey the definition accurately in other languages. This article proposes a potential solution that the definition for pulse terminology can be supplemented by modern means of non-verbal representation, i.e., using pulse waveform graphs and parameters to complete the definition of each pulse. A discussion of the challenges of obtaining reliable data is also included.

English translation of long Traditional Chinese Medicine terms

Abstract Apart from the importance of accurate meaning transference, the key to English translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) terms lies in the proper translation of term forms, in particular, of long term structures and length. This article reports on an empirical study of the English translation of long TCM terms by the following procedures: (1) collecting 1220 TCM terms and their English translations from dictionaries, journals and official websites related to TCM terminology translation; (2) segmenting and POS-tagging with ICTCLAS to obtain 823 long TCM terms with 3 or more Chinese words; (3) selecting 150 out of the 823 long TCM terms through random sampling; (4) POS-tagging the 150 English translations with CLAWS5; (5) basing on the parallel corpus and systematically discussing the structures, term length change, translation techniques and translation regularities generalized from the English translation of long TCM terms. The result shows nominalization, shift of some pre-modifiers into post-modifiers, and amplification of a predicate in the 9 kinds of structural features, and some translation techniques like literal translation, paraphrase, adaptation, amplification and simplification employed in the English translation of long TCM terms.

[The interpretation and integration of traditional Chinese phytotherapy into Western-type medicine with the possession of knowledge of the human genome].

The terminology of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is hardly interpretable in the context of human genome, therefore the human genome program attracted attention towards the Western practice of medicine in China. In the last two decades, several important steps could be observed in China in relation to the approach of traditional Chinese and Western medicine. The Chinese government supports the realization of information databases for research in order to clarify the molecular biology level to detect associations between gene expression signal transduction pathways and protein-protein interactions, and the effects of bioactive components of Chinese drugs and their effectiveness. The values of TCM are becoming more and more important for Western medicine as well, because molecular biological therapies did not redeem themselves, e.g., in tumor therapy. Orv Hetil. 2018; 159(18): 696-702.

Biologic basis of TCM syndromes and the standardization of syndrome classification

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) syndrome is an integral and essential component of TCM theory, and goes beyond philosophic concepts. This article reviews the concept of TCM syndromes and summarizes research findings on the biologic foundation of syndromes. In addition, insight is provided into the promotion of standardization of syndrome classification by enforcing uniformity of TCM terminology, applying standardized diagnostic criteria and operating procedures to minimize subjective effects. Also incorporating interdisciplinary approaches such as data mining and structure modeling, as well as integrating findings on biomarker research are discussed. Consideration is made of the fundamental TCM aspects of syndrome elements, symptoms, phenotypic features, as well as diseases, to form an integral process in the diagnostic path. We believe that better understanding of the biologic basis of the TCM syndrome and standardization of syndrome classification will improve diagnosis, which in turn will enhance therapeutic efficacy and disease prognosis.

Ontological reconstruction of the clinical terminology of traditional Chinese medicine.

This study proposes the ontological reconstruction of the current clinical terminology of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It also provides an overview of preliminary work related to the said reconstruction, including the ontology-based analysis of TCM clinical terminology. We conclude that the ontological reconstruction of TCM clinical terminology provides a proper translation from the idealized organizational model to real-world implementation and to a formalized, shared, and knowledge-based framework.

Study of traditional Chinese medicine syndrome on multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in the elderly

To statistically analyze the clinical data from patients with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in the elderly (MODSE), and to investigate the distribution pattern of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) syndromes. TCM data of 200 patients with MODSE was collected on 1, 3 and 7 days after diagnosis. Using 134 symptoms as observation indexes, clustering analysis was used to analyze the TCM symptoms and syndromes of these patients. In accordance with Diagnostic efficacy of standard TCM Syndrome, Diagnostics of TCM, State Standard of the People's Republic of China: clinical diagnose and treat Terminology of TCM, expert group differentiate on the professional knowledge and clinical manifestation and 7 types of TCM syndrome were selected. Among all syndrome types, there were 134 (22.3%) cases of phlegm stagnation with the largest population, 113 cases (18.8%) of toxic heat flourishing, 97 cases (16.2%) of damp-heat accumulation, 85 cases (14.2%) of qi-deficiency, 67 cases (11.2%) of both yin and yang deficiency, 55 cases (9.2%) of fu being filled and substances could not pass through, and 48 cases (8.1%) of qi stagnation and blood stasis. This preliminary study found 7 primary types of TCM syndrome in patients with MODSE, including syndrome of phlegm stagnation, toxic heat flourishing, accumulation of damp-heat, qi-deficiency, both yin and yang deficiency, fu being filled and substances could not pass through and qi stagnation and blood stasis. The most common syndrome is phlegm stagnation and deficiency, phlegm, blood stasis, toxic are the main etiology and pathology of the disease.

The Infrastructure of the Integrative Human Body; Qi/Dameh, Qi Movement/ Rouh and Zheng/Mezadj - Scientific Base

From the perspective of concepts in traditional medicine the human body is divided into a visible and an invisible part. The latter is the infrastructural part of the body and is a portion which is less noticed than the visible part. The visible portion is formed of several organs. Similarly the invisible part is formed of several infrastructures. Qi was reported in our previous report as one of these infrastructures. In this report, we attempt to identify and describe the other portions such as the free flow of qi, photon (qi) emission, qi movement, Zheng and the holistic view of the human body in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In addition, there is a basic similarity between the terminology of TCM and Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM). Accordingly, this report uses this similar terminology of ITM/TCM. In this regard, the basic terminology of ITM such as Dameh (Bokhar) Rouh and Mezadj (Temperament) (Body picture) will be discussed parallel to TCM terminology. We claim that this is the first time in the history of medical literature that a hypothetical discussion has included the descriptions of both TCM and ITM infrastructural concepts.

A cognitive interpretation of diachronic difference in translating traditional Chinese medicine terminology into English: a conceptual integration perspective

A cognitive interpretation of diachronic difference in translating traditional Chinese medicine terminology into English: a conceptual integration perspective

Discuss some Strategies to Standardization of TCM Terminology Translation

Based on the problems of standardization of TCM terminology translation, this paper analyses the necessity and proposes some strategies on translation and standardization of TCM terminology. Key words: Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) terminology;  Translation;  Standardization

On some issues concerning the translation and standardization of traditional Chinese medicine terminology

On some issues concerning the translation and standardization of traditional Chinese medicine terminology

The need for traditional Chinese medicine morbidity research

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has long justified its practice on empirical phenomenology. Questions remain, however, as to the legitimacy of this approach and its relevance to TCM practice and educational developments in the 21st century. General medical practice (GMP) has used practice-based data collected over the past 25 years to develop relevant medical curriculum and enhance patient care. As TCM becomes ever more incorporated into Western educational and health systems, it too must concern itself with providing a solid evidence base to be used in enhancing patient care and educational curriculum. Computer generated data related to patient problems or problem complexes abstracted from TCM clinical records can provide the basis for practitioner development and the enhancement of training programs that will lead to improvements in patient care. Such locally valid and representative data can also be used to inform research programs, public policy and evidence-based commissioning. The key to developing such systems is standardising TCM terminology and data collection protocols.

Making sense of indigenous knowledge systems: the case of traditional Chinese medicine

Cognitive linguists posit that all aspects of language are meaningful, and that meaning is motivated and structured by the nature of human experience in the environment. In this article I propose that indigenous knowledge systems are similarly motivated and can be productively analysed using a cognitive linguistic approach. I also suggest that this is a particularly urgent need in regard to indigenous or traditional medical systems which are still widely practised but often insufficiently understood in the modern biomedical context. I use the cognitive linguistic approach to analyse some central models and key terms in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The analysis suggests that image schemas play an important role in the structure of TCM conceptualisations, models and categorisations, which in turn motivate the semantic structures which underpin TCM terminology. As a consequence of the complex semantic networks which result from underlying conceptualisations, TCM terms can have specific reference for the TCM practitioner in spite of their extensive polysemy. This research suggests that the cognitive linguistic approach offers some excellent tools for analysing the complex conceptualisations of traditional medical systems and could be helpful in supporting dialogue between practitioners of traditional and modern medicine.